Physiology 3062W: Research Paper for Physiology Majors
Click
here for quick guide to writing your paper.
In many introductory science courses, lectures and textbooks
provide students with dogmatic statements of fact. In this course, students
will read primary literature in order to discover how scientific information
is obtained. In consultation with a faculty reader, students will select
and read recent journal articles addressing a specific question in physiology.
Students will then write a critical analysis of these studies, in which
they will identify hypotheses tested, describe the scientific methods
employed and summarize the results obtained, evaluate the merits of the
studies, and identify any problems with the studies.
The ability to critically and objectively evaluate information
is essential to function successfully in modern society. The process of
writing should force the writer to organize his or her thoughts in a logical
manner. The specific analytical and communication skills developed in
this course will be of particular value to students planning to pursue
professions in research or medicine. Research funding is obtained through
the writing of clear and convincing grant proposals that are able to convey
the importance of the research and the adequacy of the experimental design.
Scientific productivity is gauged by the number and quality of publications
generated. Modern health care professionals increasingly are expected
to practice “evidence based health care,” in which clinical
decisions are based on research evidence. (Click
here to learn more about evidence-based health care.)
Specific Objectives:
- To read and understand primary literature in basic
science.
- To understand how a scientific question is formulated,
tested and evaluated.
- To understand how a few specific experiments are performed
and reported.
- To be able to evaluate the (perhaps conflicting) ideas
in a small set of scientific journal articles.
- To write a clear, succinct paper in which you communicate
your mastery of Objectives 1-4.
Assignment:
Write a paper comparing the experimental results and interpretation
of two recent (published in last 8 years) scientific journal articles.
Both articles should be testing closely related hypotheses about a topic
of your own choosing. (In special instances, your advisor might allow
you to focus on one major paper.) Copies of these articles should be turned
in to the advisor when the paper is submitted. The topic should be related
to some aspect of basic physiology. The body of the paper should be 10
or more typed, double-spaced pages when it is finished. In addition a
full bibliography of 6 or more recently published scientific journal articles
must accompany the paper. References to these articles
should be included in the text at appropriate places. You are not writing
a comprehensive review of a broad topic. You are writing an explanation
and comparison of a very limited number of scientific articles.
The specific rules and regulations for writing this paper
are given below. Be sure that you read this carefully.
Due Dates:
These dates will be strictly enforced (see 'Grading' section
below for information on possible extension).
- Selection of advisor: Due end of 4th week of class
(October 2)
- Outline: Due end of 7th week of class (Friday, October
16).
- First Draft: Due end of 11th week of class (Friday,
November 20).
- Final Draft: Due Friday, December 18.
Grading:
The paper will be graded on an A-F basis. The grade will be based primarily on the quality of the final draft. Failure
to meet the above deadlines may result in a poorer grade. Advisors will
use the Guideline for Grading that emphasizes
critical analysis and original thinking over merely summarizing the literature.
Extensions. If you do not feel that you
can meet a deadline, you can try to negotiate an extension with the advisor.
This means that you must get a statement, signed by the advisor, setting
a new due date and this statement must be attached to the paper. The extension
is variable, but the final draft must be submitted before the start of
the spring semester. If you do not complete the paper by the due date
and have been given an extension, you will be assigned an "I"
grade. This will be converted to your real grade when the paper is satisfactorily
completed within the time of your extension. If you do not meet the extension
deadline, you will be assigned an "F" for the course.
How to go About Producing This Paper:
- Pick a topic of interest to you, related
to human physiology. Do not wait for a potential topic to be covered in
PHSL3061. (You must choose your paper topic before most of the PHSL3061
course material has been presented, so pick something that you think that
you will find interesting.) Click here
to view a list of possible paper topics. You are not limited to the topics
on this list; any topic is acceptable if you and your faculty reader mutually
agree upon it.
- Do a computer search for scientific
literature relating to your topic. Choose a recent review from your search
and read it to familiarize yourself with the questions that research scientists
are currently interested in regarding your topic. Review the abstracts
in your search results for a small group of original research papers that
appear to be related to each other that interest you. Relevant papers
may also appear in the bibliography section of the review article. Click
here to see how to recognize an original research paper.
All university students have free access to the Medline
database of published research books and papers (you can use the Pubmed
or OVID
entry points). This is a wonderful way to search the recent literature.
It allows you to search by using any "keyword" you want and
combine the searches for different keywords. If the only thing that writing
this paper accomplishes is to make you familiar with this tool, then it
will have been worthwhile. The University
Libraries and specifically the Biomedical
Library have tutorials and seminars on getting the most out of online
databases searches. Good places to access library tools are the Virtual
Undergraduate Library and Research
Quickstart. Other helpful links for your research project can be accessed
at this website: Online
Resources.
- Contact the faculty member whose work
is most closely related to the topic that you have chosen. (If you are
unsure of whom to contact, e-mail Prof.
Barnett for help.)
Ask that faculty member to serve as your advisor for this assignment.
If (s)he agrees, have that faculty member send an e-mail to Prof. Barnett confirming that you will be working together. This confirmation
must be received by September 26. Your advisor will also ask you to read
and sign an agreement that acknowledges that you are aware of the course
deadlines and expectations. Click
here for faculty contact information.
- Narrow your focus to a pair of closely
related articles that you can analyze and discuss. The articles you choose
must be reports of scientific experiments in peer-reviewed journals, published
within the last 8 years. These articles should focus on a physiological
mechanism (i.e., how does a physiological process work). It is very likely
that these research studies will use animal subjects. The following types
of articles are not acceptable: review articles, News & Views discussions,
text from a web-site, clinical case reports, reports of clinical trials,
epidemiological studies.
You may have to repeat steps 1 and 2 several times until
you are comfortable with your choices. If you are confused about this
step, just jot down a few sentences and go see your advisor. He or she
will help you focus your ideas. Your advisor must approve your
choice of papers before you proceed to the next step.
- Write an outline for your paper. The
exact format of the outline is flexible, but it should minimally include:
-
A statement of the topic to be addressed.
- A true outline of the paragraphs you intend to write (see Step 7).
- Full citations for each of the articles you have chosen.
This is the most important step. Spend time on
the outline. This is the time to make sure that you have a good understanding
of the problems addressed by your primary research articles and that your
own paper will be well organized. A good outline from which to work will
save you a great deal of time later!
If you are confused about this step, go see your advisor.
If you are off base at all, (s)he can save you a significant amount of
time by pointing out initial mistakes. The advisor may give you advice
about how to fill out the outline or (s)he may decide that your topic
will not work and send you back to the library with some new instructions.
Once you have written an acceptable outline, advisor will give approval to proceed. This approved outline must be attached
to the rough draft and final paper. Papers will not be accepted without
an attached, approved outline. This is to ensure that you meet
personally with the advisor. We also want to encourage you to contact
the advisor as often as you wish to get help or advice in writing the
paper.
Click here to view examples
of good outlines that previous students have submitted.
- Research the background information
upon which the authors based their experimental hypotheses until you understand
it well enough to explain this in writing. This will take additional library
work using Medline and the literature cited in the articles you have chosen.
- Using your outline as a guide, write a draft
of your paper. This should include:
- A title page with your name, phone number, and email
address on it.
- An introduction (about 1 - 2 pages) of the background
information needed to explain why the experiments were performed. The
paper should begin with an introduction that describes the question
you are trying to answer, provides some historical background, and presents
some idea of the approaches that will be used in the two articles that
are the main focus.
- A statement of the experimental hypotheses or questions
that were tested. Although this section might only be a sentence or
two long, it is very important. Scientific investigation is guided by
hypotheses. In designing a good scientific study, a researcher will
first formulate a specific, testable hypothesis that addresses
an unanswered question in the field. He or she will then design an experiment
such that whatever results obtained will either support or disprove
this hypothesis.
- An explanation of the experimental strategies (about
2 pages) employed by the two sets of authors, including enough details
of the techniques to make the experiments understandable. You should
pay attention to the controls used by the experimenters. If you do not
understand the methods used by the experimenters, ask your reader for
help.
- Summary of the results (about 2-3 pages) of the two
sets of experiments. You may include figures from the research articles
in order to illustrate this section.
- Summary of the authors’ conclusions (about
½ page).
- Your interpretation of these results (about 2-3 pages).
This is the most important section of the paper, where you display
your analytical skills. Do not assume that a study is well done
just because it got published in a scientific journal. Even though your
research articles have gone through peer review and have been found
acceptable for publication by the editor of a journal, not all scientists
will necessarily agree that the studies were well done. (Scientists
frequently meet in “journal clubs,” where newly published
papers are discussed. More often than not, these discussions have a
critical tone. Even very good research raises questions in the minds
of readers.) You should address all of the following:
- Were the experimental designs appropriate
to test the hypotheses? (Click here
to view an example of a poorly designed experiment).
- Do the results of each paper support
the hypotheses? Why/why not?
- Are the authors’ conclusions supported
by the data? Why/why not? What conclusions do you draw from the data?
What questions remain to be answered and how might these questions
be approached in the future?
- Compare the two major papers. Do the
results agree or disagree; if they disagree, why? Do you favor the
results of one article over another? Why?
- Bibliography. Every statement in the paper that
is based on something you read must be referenced. One way to reference
a journal article is to list the complete description of each reference
(authors, title, journal and date of publication) at the end of the
paper and then, in the body of the paper, list just the first and second
author and year. For example (Doe, et. al. 1996) would refer to a paper
that had more than two authors. You must reference at least six recent
(written in the past 8 years) original research articles related to
your question, even though you focus on only two in the body of the
paper. You may also reference textbooks or review articles (especially
in your Introduction) but these cannot be counted among the six research
articles. Be sure to enclose in quotes any sentences that are taken
verbatim from the literature. You may also find it useful to look at
the statement on "Plagiarism."
Plagiarizing material from the original articles will result
in a failing grade.
- At the end of the eleventh week of class, turn
in the following to your advisor: a) your first draft; b) the
signed outline; and c) copies of the two major articles covered in your
paper. Be sure this draft contains a title page complete with your phone
number and email address so the advisor can contact you. This draft
will be read critically by the advisor. She or he will edit the paper
for scientific content, logical presentation, and English composition,
noting places that need revision.
- Take the comments on the revision seriously. Incorporate
the advisor's feedback into the body of your text. Rewrite difficult-to-understand
passages. Clarify difficult concepts in your own mind and rewrite your
explanations if necessary. This is your chance to polish your work so
the reader will clearly understand the ideas you have synthesized from
the journal articles and your new knowledge of your topic.
Revision is an important part of any writing process.
Oftentimes we read our own compositions and are astounded to find something
wrong, silly or incomprehensible. Feedback from the advisors is meant
to help you learn to critically examine your own written work. The advisor
may discuss her/his critique with you or simply hand it back for revision.
This intermediate draft should be handed in with the final revised version.
- The final, revised version of the paper is
due December 18. At that time you should turn in:
_____The final revised version of the paper.
_____The draft that was handed in for criticism complete
with editor's scribbles.
_____The approved outline.
_____Copies of the two research articles covered in depth
in your paper.
____ Any extension agreements.
_____Your phone and/or email address should be on the
paper's title page.
These documents can be submitted electronically with your advisor's approval. Ask your advisor if you have questions what they expect you submit for the final review of your project. After final grading, contact your advisor if you desire the return of your final paper and/or any of the support materials.
What We Will Do For You:
- Discuss your choice of articles. If you are having
trouble choosing, we'll be happy to go over a limited set of abstracts
with you. You must schedule an appointment and bring these to your advisor.
- Discuss the content of the articles with you if you
are having trouble understanding them. Again, you must schedule an appointment
and bring these to your advisor.
- Read your written draft text within a few days of receipt,
checking for scientific content and composition skills. We write notes
all over papers before returning them to you. Remember, the learning is
in the process of reading the literature, formulating your ideas and writing
the paper. Our comments, as feedback, are an important part of the learning
process.
- Read your final draft within a few days of receipt,
for scientific content, composition skills, and incorporation of previous
comments. Again, we may edit or write all over the text with our impressions
and feedback.
- Assign a grade.
Students in need of writing or English composition help
beyond what a Physiology instructor can offer may be referred to The Center
for Writing website: http://writing.umn.edu/sws/.
Click here to view examples
of outstanding student papers of the past.
